Fig. 5

The top and bottom figures depict the root mean squared error of the estimated solar heading and elevation angles for both the parametric and deep neural network models. The parametric model solely considers single scattering phenomena, leading to greater solar angular errors in low visibility waters (Champaign, IL and Tampa, FL) in comparison to high visibility waters (Lake Ohrid, North Macedonia). Conversely, the deep neural network model learns intrinsic polarization patterns that arise from both single and multiple scattering, which results in similarly low solar angular errors in both low and high visibility waters